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<title>Video remote interpreting</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Video remote interpreting</span></span>

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<p><b>Video remote interpreting</b> (<b>VRI</b>) is a <a href="Videotelephony" title="Videotelephony">videotelecommunication</a> service that uses devices such as <a href="Webcam" title="Webcam">web cameras</a> or <a href="Videophone" class="mw-redirect" title="Videophone">videophones</a> to provide <a href="Sign_language" title="Sign language">sign language</a> or <a href="Language_interpretation" title="Language interpretation">spoken language interpreting</a> services. This is done through a remote or offsite interpreter, in order to communicate with persons with whom there is a <a href="Communication" title="Communication">communication barrier</a>. It is similar to a slightly different technology called <a href="Video_relay_service" title="Video relay service">video relay service</a>, where the parties are each located in different places. VRI is a type of <a href="Telecommunications_relay_service" title="Telecommunications relay service">telecommunications relay service</a> (TRS) that is not regulated by the FCC.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Method_of_use">Method of use</h2></div>

<p>In a typical VRI situation, the two parties are located together at one location with a <a href="Videophone" class="mw-redirect" title="Videophone">videophone</a> or <a href="Webcam" title="Webcam">web camera</a>, and a <a href="Television" title="Television">television</a> or <a href="Computer_monitor" title="Computer monitor">computer screen</a>. The interpreter works from another location—either an office, home-based studio or call center—also using a videophone or web camera and television or computer screen.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The equipment must provide video and audio connectivity, or a separate telephone line can be used for audio. The video interpreter facilitates communication between the participants who are located together at the other site. In the case of signed language interpretation (such as <a href="American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">American Sign Language</a>), the interpreter hears the voices of the hearing people through the microphone or telephone, and renders the message into sign language, via a video camera, which the deaf person views on his or her video display. In turn, when the deaf participants sign to the camera, interpreters view it from their screen, and speaks the aural interpretation into a microphone or telephone for the hearing people.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="VRI_versus_Video_Relay_Service">VRI versus Video Relay Service</h3></div>

<p>VRI is distinct from <a href="Video_relay_service" title="Video relay service">Video Relay Service</a> (VRS). Typically VRI is a contracted service used by organizations to help them communicate with <a href="Limited_English_proficiency" title="Limited English proficiency">Limited English Proficient</a> or deaf and hard of hearing customers. VRS is principally a service provided to the deaf community, whereby a deaf person can contact the service, and use the interpreter to contact a third-party organization. In the past, the term 'video relay service' had been used interchangeably with 'video relay interpreting', but currently the terms refer to two separate and distinct services. However, a 'video interpreter' (V.I.) may refer to the practitioner working in either setting.

</p><p>VRS in the United States receives funding from <a href="Telecommunications_relay_service" title="Telecommunications relay service">telecommunications relay service</a> taxes. According to <a href="United_States" title="United States">U.S.</a> <a href="Federal_Communications_Commission" title="Federal Communications Commission">Federal Communications Commission</a> (FCC) regulations, deaf and hearing people in the same room are not permitted to use VRS to communicate, because the service is designated only for telephone calls.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the United States, the FCC requires that if a VRS interpreter determines callers are in the same location, they must advise both parties that the interpreter must terminate the call. VRI however, can either be provided for persons in the same location, or different locations, as long as the parties can see or hear the interpreter respectively, and vice versa.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_and_Deployment_Examples">History and Deployment Examples</h2></div>

<p>In 2010, <a href="Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a>'s <a href="Mercy_Hospital_and_Medical_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Mercy Hospital and Medical Center">Mercy Hospital and Medical Center</a> carried out an investigation into new ways that the hospital could effectively meet the needs of its <a href="Deafness" title="Deafness">deaf and hard of hearing</a> patients, with the ultimate goal to improve patient care and satisfaction, increase hospital efficiency and provide better value for money for all. Their conclusion focused on implementing an on-demand VRI service whereby hospital staff were able to access qualified, experienced <a href="Registry_of_Interpreters_for_the_Deaf" title="Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf">Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf</a> (RID) / <a href="National_Association_of_the_Deaf_(United_States)" title="National Association of the Deaf (United States)">National Association of the Deaf</a> (NAD) certified <a href="American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">American Sign Language</a> interpreters via the Internet with delays as short as minutes. Dedicated <a href="Laptop_computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Laptop computer">laptop computers</a> were made available for use by clinicians and, to this day, the service is utilized across the hospital's departments. Notably the hospital has measured tangible results in increased patient flow and overall satisfaction.

</p><p>In June 2011, the <a href="Windsor_Police_Service" title="Windsor Police Service">Windsor, Ontario, Canada, Police Service</a> piloted a VRI service aimed at improving communication with the deaf, hard of hearing and people with other language barriers. The 30-day trial was deployed in the Emergency 911 Center, and proved so successful that they went on to incorporate the program into their Windsor Police Service Human Rights Project as a way of expanding services to people who are deaf or are Limited English Proficient.<sup id="cite_ref-WindsorStar-2012.05.12_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WindsorStar-2012.05.12-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cost to Windsor Police Services at that time was $50 per month and $3.25 per minute of use.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legal_Aspects">Legal Aspects</h2></div>

<p>As VRI seeks to provide a communication accommodation, its use is widely regulated under civil rights law including disability rights law.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3></div>

<p>In the United States, there are relevant federal laws and litigation focused on the use of VRI.

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<ul><li><a href="Americans_with_Disabilities_Act_of_1990" title="Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990">Americans with Disabilities Act</a></li>

<li><a href="Affordable_Care_Act" title="Affordable Care Act">Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act</a>: Section 1557, the non-discrimination provision, of the Affordable Care Act provides protections for patients who require communication accommodations.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><i>Silva v. Baptist Health S Florida, Inc.</i> (No. 19-12386)<blockquote><p>"However, the plaintiffs presented substantial evidence that during their visits between 2009 and 2014], the VRI machines routinely failed to facilitate effective communication. Sometimes the VRI picture would be choppy, unclear, or would cut out, and sometimes the VRI machine failed to operate at all. In Silva (the court’s earlier 2017 decision), we described how the malfunctioning of the VRI machines “could generate a reasonable inference of an impaired informational exchange” that was likely to occur each time Plaintiffs visited Baptist’s hospitals. Given that Plaintiffs “routinely” experienced these VRI malfunctions at Baptist’s hospitals over a period of several years, a jury could reasonably infer that hospital staff knew that the continued reliance on VRI as an interpretive aid, without correcting its deficiencies, was “substantially likely” to result in the impaired informational exchange experienced by Plaintiffs (Jebian, intending to decline the use of VRI at Baptist’s hospitals, “acted reasonably in anticipating that the VRI would not facilitate effective communication”). A jury could thus conclude that Plaintiffs experienced instances of ineffective communication as a result of a “deliberate choice” by Baptist officials, rather than mere negligence.”</p></blockquote></li>

<li>Settlement, <i>United States of America v.</i> <i>Adventist Health System Georgia, Inc.</i> (Jan. 2, 2022): <blockquote><p>"VRI shall not be used when it is not likely to ensure effective communication, for example, due to: (1) a Patient’s limited ability to move his or head, hands, or arms; vision or cognitive issues; significant pain; or because the Patient cannot be properly positioned to see the screen: (2) space limitations in the room: (3) communications with the Patient or Companion and Medical Personnel reflect that the complexity of the medical issue requires an on-site interpreter; or (4) any other time when there are indicators that VRI will likely nor or is not providing effective communication with a Patient or Companion, VRI shall not be used as a substitute for an on-site Qualified Interpreter. If VRI is initiated but does not provide effective communication, an on-site Qualified Interpreter shall be provided in accordance with the timetable set forth in Paragraph 25."<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Controversy">Controversy</h2></div>

<p>There is considerable discussion on the appropriateness of when to use VRI. One popular application is in the hospital <a href="Emergency_room" class="mw-redirect" title="Emergency room">emergency room</a>. In this setting, it is essential that patients and caregivers communicate readily with medical personnel, but it may take time for a face-to-face interpreter to arrive onsite. Hospitals with VRI capability can connect with a remote interpreter quickly and conduct triage and intake surveys with the patient or caregiver without significant delay. Also, employees who work in office settings are increasingly converting to VRI services to accommodate brief interactions or regular meetings which would be difficult to schedule with an onsite interpreter. Schools and businesses located in areas not adequately served by existing community interpreters can also benefit from increased access to professional interpreters and save the expense of vendor travel reimbursements.

</p><p>Using VRI for medical, legal and mental health settings is seen as controversial by people in deaf communities because it does not provide adequate communication access —particularly in medical settings. In a nationwide survey of deaf people who use American Sign Language, researchers found that only 41% of people who used VRI were satisfied with communicating through the VRI.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This finding has been supported by other research indicating that medical providers ignore deaf patients' requests for in-person interpreters, forcing patients to use VRI.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are also significant issues with the technical capabilities of VRI, with patients reporting medical staff being unaware on how to operate VRI machinery, leading to it being unsuccessful.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<ul><li><a href="Language_interpretation" title="Language interpretation">Language interpretation</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_video_telecommunication_services_and_product_brands" title="List of video telecommunication services and product brands">List of video telecommunication services and product brands</a></li>

<li><a href="Telecommunications_relay_service" title="Telecommunications relay service">Telecommunications relay service</a></li>

<li><a href="Video_relay_service" title="Video relay service">Video relay service</a>, where the hearing party is situated at a different location from the signing person</li>

<li><a href="Videoconferencing" class="mw-redirect" title="Videoconferencing">Videoconferencing</a></li>

<li><a href="Videophone" class="mw-redirect" title="Videophone">Videophone</a></li>

<li><a href="Videotelephony" title="Videotelephony">Videotelephony</a></li>

<li><a href="Webcam" title="Webcam">Webcam</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

<p>Rivas Velarde M, Izquierdo Martinez LC, Dalal J, Martinez-R A, Cruz Reyes DL, Cuculick J, Vallejo-Silva A, Irreño-Sotomonte J, Groce N

Video Remote Sign Language Interpreting in Health Communication for Deaf People: Protocol for a Randomized Controlled Trial

JMIR Res Protoc 2024;13:e64590

doi: 10.2196/64590

PMID: 39622021

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</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121119001737/http://www.rid.org/UserFiles/File/pdfs/Standard_Practice_Papers/VRI_SPP.pdf">"Archived copy"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rid.org/UserFiles/File/pdfs/Standard_Practice_Papers/VRI_SPP.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on November 19, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 28,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite web}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)</span></span>

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<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nad.org/issues/technology/vri">Video Remote Interpreting</a>, National Association of the Deaf</span>

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<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fcc.gov/cgb/consumerfacts/videorelay.html">Video Relay Services</a>, Federal Communications Commission</span>

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<li id="cite_note-WindsorStar-2012.05.12-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WindsorStar-2012.05.12_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Windsor Star. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130215181200/http://www2.canada.com/windsorstar/news/story.html?id=7ace7af4-4acd-4a37-a1ff-93ff0d0714c8">Windsor police adopt high-tech access service for the deaf</a>, <i><a href="Windsor_Star" title="Windsor Star">Windsor Star</a></i>, May 12, 2012. Retrieved January 4, 2012 via Canada.com website.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">CBC News. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/windsor/windsor-police-now-have-sign-language-service-1.1191462">Windsor Police now have sign language service</a>, <i><a href="CBC_News" title="CBC News">CBC News</a></i>, May 14, 2012. Retrieved from CBC.ca website January 4, 2013.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frkovic, Sanja. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.ca.msn.com/ontario/windsor/video-remote-interpreting-launches-at-police-stations-today">Video remote interpreting launches at police stations today</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130629132132/http://news.ca.msn.com/ontario/windsor/video-remote-interpreting-launches-at-police-stations-today">Archived</a> 2013-06-29 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>OurWindsor.ca</i>, May 15, 2012. Retrieved January 4, 2012 from News.Ca.MSN.com website.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/justice-department-secures-agreement-hospital-ensure-effective-communication-deaf-patients">"Justice Department Secures Agreement with Hospital to Ensure Effective Communication with Deaf Patients and Companions"</a>. <i>www.justice.gov</i>. 2022-01-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-01-06</span></span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKushalnagarPaludnevicieneKushalnagar2019" class="citation journal cs1">Kushalnagar, Poorna; Paludneviciene, Raylene; Kushalnagar, Raja (2019-03-11). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6431824">"Video Remote Interpreting Technology in Health Care: Cross-Sectional Study of Deaf Patients' Experiences"</a>. <i>JMIR Rehabilitation and Assistive Technologies</i>. <b>6</b> (1): e13233. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2196%2F13233">10.2196/13233</a></span>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2369-2529">2369-2529</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6431824">6431824</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30855233">30855233</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-:0-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFJamesCoadyStacciariniMcKee2022" class="citation journal cs1">James, Tyler G.; Coady, Kyle A.; Stacciarini, Jeanne-Marie R.; McKee, Michael M.; Phillips, David G.; Maruca, David; Cheong, JeeWon (January 2022). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/10497323211046238">""They're Not Willing To Accommodate Deaf patients": Communication Experiences of Deaf American Sign Language Users in the Emergency Department"</a></span>. <i>Qualitative Health Research</i>. <b>32</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">48–</span>63. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F10497323211046238">10.1177/10497323211046238</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1049-7323">1049-7323</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34823402">34823402</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:244661295">244661295</a>.</cite></span>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110722051844/http://www.rid.org/UserFiles/File/pdfs/Standard_Practice_Papers/VRISPP_Draft_for_Member_Comments.pdf">Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf Video Relay Interpreting <i>Draft</i> Standard Practice Paper</a></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Telecommunications802" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications">Telecommunications</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="History_of_telecommunication" title="History of telecommunication">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Beacon#For_defensive_communications" title="Beacon">Beacon</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_broadcasting" title="History of broadcasting">Broadcasting</a></li>

<li><a href="Cable_protection_system" title="Cable protection system">Cable protection system</a></li>

<li><a href="Cable_television" title="Cable television">Cable TV</a></li>

<li><a href="Communications_satellite#History" title="Communications satellite">Communications satellite</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_network#History" title="Computer network">Computer network</a></li>

<li><a href="Data_compression" title="Data compression">Data compression</a>

<ul><li><a href="Audio_coding_format" title="Audio coding format">audio</a></li>

<li><a href="Image_compression" title="Image compression">image</a></li>

<li><a href="Video_coding_format" title="Video coding format">video</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Digital_media" title="Digital media">Digital media</a>

<ul><li><a href="Internet_video" title="Internet video">Internet video</a></li>

<li><a href="Online_video_platform" title="Online video platform">online video platform</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_media" title="Social media">social media</a></li>

<li><a href="Streaming_media" title="Streaming media">streaming</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Drums_in_communication" title="Drums in communication">Drums</a></li>

<li><a href="Edholm's_law" title="Edholm's law">Edholm's law</a></li>

<li><a href="Electrical_telegraph#History" title="Electrical telegraph">Electrical telegraph</a></li>

<li><a href="Heliograph#History" title="Heliograph">Heliographs</a></li>

<li><a href="Hydraulic_telegraph#Greek_hydraulic_semaphore_system" title="Hydraulic telegraph">Hydraulic telegraph</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Information revolution">Information revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_the_Internet" title="History of the Internet">Internet</a></li>

<li><a href="Mass_media#History" title="Mass media">Mass media</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_mobile_phones" title="History of mobile phones">Mobile phone</a>

<ul><li><a href="Smartphone" title="Smartphone">Smartphone</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Optical_communication" title="Optical communication">Optical telecommunication</a></li>

<li><a href="Optical_telegraph" title="Optical telegraph">Optical telegraphy</a></li>

<li><a href="Pager" title="Pager">Pager</a></li>

<li><a href="Photophone" title="Photophone">Photophone</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_prepaid_mobile_phones" title="History of prepaid mobile phones">Prepaid mobile phone</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_radio" title="History of radio">Radio</a></li>

<li><a href="Radiotelephone" title="Radiotelephone">Radiotelephone</a></li>

<li><a href="Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">Satellite communications</a></li>

<li><a href="Semaphore" title="Semaphore">Semaphore</a>

<ul><li><a href="Phryctoria" title="Phryctoria">Phryctoria</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">Semiconductor</a>

<ul><li><a href="Semiconductor_device" title="Semiconductor device">device</a></li>

<li><a href="MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_the_transistor" title="History of the transistor">transistor</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Smoke_signal" title="Smoke signal">Smoke signals</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_telecommunication" title="History of telecommunication">Telecommunications history</a></li>

<li><a href="Telautograph" title="Telautograph">Telautograph</a></li>

<li><a href="Telegraphy" title="Telegraphy">Telegraphy</a></li>

<li><a href="Teleprinter" title="Teleprinter">Teleprinter</a> (teletype)</li>

<li><a href="History_of_the_telephone" title="History of the telephone">Telephone</a></li>

<li><i><a href="The_Telephone_Cases" title="The Telephone Cases">The Telephone Cases</a></i></li>

<li><a href="History_of_television" title="History of television">Television</a>

<ul><li><a href="Digital_television" title="Digital television">digital</a></li>

<li><a href="Streaming_television" title="Streaming television">streaming</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Submarine_communications_cable#Early_history:_telegraph_and_coaxial_cables" title="Submarine communications cable">Undersea telegraph line</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_videotelephony" title="History of videotelephony">Videotelephony</a></li>

<li><a href="Whistled_language" title="Whistled language">Whistled language</a></li>

<li><a href="Wireless_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless revolution">Wireless revolution</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pioneers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Nasir_Ahmed_(engineer)" title="Nasir Ahmed (engineer)">Nasir Ahmed</a></li>

<li><a href="Edwin_Howard_Armstrong" title="Edwin Howard Armstrong">Edwin Howard Armstrong</a></li>

<li><a href="Mohamed_M._Atalla" title="Mohamed M. Atalla">Mohamed M. Atalla</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Logie_Baird" title="John Logie Baird">John Logie Baird</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Baran" title="Paul Baran">Paul Baran</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">Alexander Graham Bell</a></li>

<li><a href="Emile_Berliner" title="Emile Berliner">Emile Berliner</a></li>

<li><a href="Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a></li>

<li><a href="Francis_Blake_(inventor)" title="Francis Blake (inventor)">Francis Blake</a></li>

<li><a href="Jagadish_Chandra_Bose" title="Jagadish Chandra Bose">Jagadish Chandra Bose</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_Bourseul" title="Charles Bourseul">Charles Bourseul</a></li>

<li><a href="Walter_Houser_Brattain" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Houser Brattain">Walter Houser Brattain</a></li>

<li><a href="Claude_Chappe" title="Claude Chappe">Claude Chappe</a></li>

<li><a href="Yogen_Dalal" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogen Dalal">Yogen Dalal</a></li>

<li><a href="Donald_Davies" title="Donald Davies">Donald Davies</a></li>

<li><a href="Daniel_Davis_Jr." title="Daniel Davis Jr.">Daniel Davis Jr.</a></li>

<li><a href="Amos_Dolbear" title="Amos Dolbear">Amos Dolbear</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Edison" title="Thomas Edison">Thomas Edison</a></li>

<li><a href="Philo_Farnsworth" title="Philo Farnsworth">Philo Farnsworth</a></li>

<li><a href="Reginald_Fessenden" title="Reginald Fessenden">Reginald Fessenden</a></li>

<li><a href="Lee_de_Forest" title="Lee de Forest">Lee de Forest</a></li>

<li><a href="Elisha_Gray" title="Elisha Gray">Elisha Gray</a></li>

<li><a href="Oliver_Heaviside" title="Oliver Heaviside">Oliver Heaviside</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a></li>

<li><a href="Erna_Schneider_Hoover" title="Erna Schneider Hoover">Erna Schneider Hoover</a></li>

<li><a href="Harold_Hopkins_(physicist)" title="Harold Hopkins (physicist)">Harold Hopkins</a></li>

<li><a href="Gardiner_Greene_Hubbard" title="Gardiner Greene Hubbard">Gardiner Greene Hubbard</a></li>

<li><a href="Dawon_Kahng" title="Dawon Kahng">Dawon Kahng</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_K._Kao" title="Charles K. Kao">Charles K. Kao</a></li>

<li><a href="Narinder_Singh_Kapany" title="Narinder Singh Kapany">Narinder Singh Kapany</a></li>

<li><a href="Hedy_Lamarr" title="Hedy Lamarr">Hedy Lamarr</a></li>

<li><a href="Roberto_Landell_de_Moura" title="Roberto Landell de Moura">Roberto Landell</a></li>

<li><a href="Innocenzo_Manzetti" title="Innocenzo Manzetti">Innocenzo Manzetti</a></li>

<li><a href="Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Metcalfe" title="Robert Metcalfe">Robert Metcalfe</a></li>

<li><a href="Antonio_Meucci" title="Antonio Meucci">Antonio Meucci</a></li>

<li><a href="Samuel_Morse" title="Samuel Morse">Samuel Morse</a></li>

<li><a href="Jun-ichi_Nishizawa" title="Jun-ichi Nishizawa">Jun-ichi Nishizawa</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_Grafton_Page" title="Charles Grafton Page">Charles Grafton Page</a></li>

<li><a href="Radia_Perlman" title="Radia Perlman">Radia Perlman</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexander_Stepanovich_Popov" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Stepanovich Popov">Alexander Stepanovich Popov</a></li>

<li><a href="Tivadar_Pusk%C3%A1s" title="Tivadar Puskás">Tivadar Puskás</a></li>

<li><a href="Johann_Philipp_Reis" title="Johann Philipp Reis">Johann Philipp Reis</a></li>

<li><a href="Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Claude Shannon</a></li>

<li><a href="Almon_Brown_Strowger" title="Almon Brown Strowger">Almon Brown Strowger</a></li>

<li><a href="Henry_Sutton_(inventor)" title="Henry Sutton (inventor)">Henry Sutton</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_Sumner_Tainter" title="Charles Sumner Tainter">Charles Sumner Tainter</a></li>

<li><a href="Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Nikola Tesla</a></li>

<li><a href="Camille_Tissot" title="Camille Tissot">Camille Tissot</a></li>

<li><a href="Alfred_Vail" title="Alfred Vail">Alfred Vail</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_A._Watson" title="Thomas A. Watson">Thomas A. Watson</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_Wheatstone" title="Charles Wheatstone">Charles Wheatstone</a></li>

<li><a href="Vladimir_K._Zworykin" title="Vladimir K. Zworykin">Vladimir K. Zworykin</a></li>

<li><i><a href="List_of_Internet_pioneers" title="List of Internet pioneers">Internet pioneers</a></i></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Transmission_medium" title="Transmission medium">Transmission<br>media</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Coaxial_cable" title="Coaxial cable">Coaxial cable</a></li>

<li><a href="Fiber-optic_communication" title="Fiber-optic communication">Fiber-optic communication</a>

<ul><li><a href="Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">optical fiber</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Free-space_optical_communication" title="Free-space optical communication">Free-space optical communication</a></li>

<li><a href="Molecular_communication" title="Molecular communication">Molecular communication</a></li>

<li><a href="Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">Radio waves</a>

<ul><li><a href="Wireless" title="Wireless">wireless</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Transmission_line" title="Transmission line">Transmission line</a>

<ul><li><a href="Telecommunication_circuit" title="Telecommunication circuit">telecommunication circuit</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Network_topology" title="Network topology">Network topology</a><br>and switching</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bandwidth_(computing)" title="Bandwidth (computing)">Bandwidth</a></li>

<li><a href="Telecommunications_link" title="Telecommunications link">Links</a></li>

<li><a href="Network_switch" title="Network switch">Network switching</a>

<ul><li><a href="Circuit_switching" title="Circuit switching">circuit</a></li>

<li><a href="Packet_switching" title="Packet switching">packet</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Node_(networking)" title="Node (networking)">Nodes</a>

<ul><li><a href="Terminal_(telecommunication)" title="Terminal (telecommunication)">terminal</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Telephone_exchange" title="Telephone exchange">Telephone exchange</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Multiplexing" title="Multiplexing">Multiplexing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Space-division_multiple_access" title="Space-division multiple access">Space-division</a></li>

<li><a href="Frequency-division_multiplexing" title="Frequency-division multiplexing">Frequency-division</a></li>

<li><a href="Time-division_multiplexing" title="Time-division multiplexing">Time-division</a></li>

<li><a href="Polarization-division_multiplexing" title="Polarization-division multiplexing">Polarization-division</a></li>

<li><a href="Orbital_angular_momentum_multiplexing" title="Orbital angular momentum multiplexing">Orbital angular-momentum</a></li>

<li><a href="Code-division_multiple_access" title="Code-division multiple access">Code-division</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Communication_protocol" title="Communication protocol">Communication protocol</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_network" title="Computer network">Computer network</a></li>

<li><a href="Data_communication" title="Data communication">Data transmission</a></li>

<li><a href="Store_and_forward" title="Store and forward">Store and forward</a></li>

<li><a href="Telecommunications_equipment" title="Telecommunications equipment">Telecommunications equipment</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Telecommunications_network" title="Telecommunications network">Types of network</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cellular_network" title="Cellular network">Cellular network</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a></li>

<li><a href="Mobile_telephony" title="Mobile telephony">Mobile</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_switched_telephone_network" title="Public switched telephone network">Public Switched Telephone</a></li>

<li><a href="Radio_network" title="Radio network">Radio</a></li>

<li><a href="Television_broadcasting" class="mw-redirect" title="Television broadcasting">Television</a></li>

<li><a href="Telex" title="Telex">Telex</a></li>

<li><a href="Wireless_network" title="Wireless network">Wireless network</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Telecommunications_network" title="Telecommunications network">Notable networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a></li>

<li><a href="BITNET" title="BITNET">BITNET</a></li>

<li><a href="CYCLADES" title="CYCLADES">CYCLADES</a></li>

<li><a href="FidoNet" title="FidoNet">FidoNet</a></li>

<li><a href="Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li>

<li><a href="Internet2" title="Internet2">Internet2</a></li>

<li><a href="JANET" title="JANET">JANET</a></li>

<li><a href="NPL_network" title="NPL network">NPL network</a></li>

<li><a href="TANet" title="TANet">TANet</a></li>

<li><a href="Toasternet" title="Toasternet">Toasternet</a></li>

<li><a href="Usenet" title="Usenet">Usenet</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Locations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Africa</li>

<li>Americas

<ul><li>North</li>

<li>South</li></ul></li>

<li>Antarctica</li>

<li>Europe</li>

<li>Oceania</li>

<li><i><a href="List_of_telecommunications_regulatory_bodies" title="List of telecommunications regulatory bodies">Global telecommunications regulation bodies</a></i></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span> </span><a href="Portal%3ATelecommunication" title="Portal:Telecommunication">Telecommunication portal</a></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"></span></span> <a href="Outline_of_telecommunication" title="Outline of telecommunication">Outline</a></li>

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